Unlock Your Potential: The Physics Career Tool Box for STEM Success

Solving complex problems, mastering experimental techniques, analyzing data, and honing skills in technical communication and programming are the hallmarks of a physics education. These abilities make physics graduates highly sought after in a diverse range of fields. If you’re considering entering the workforce after your bachelor’s degree, the Career Tool Box outlined here can be your guide to exploring options and preparing for a successful career in STEM and beyond.

This career tool box is specifically designed for undergraduate physics students aiming to transition into the professional world after graduation. However, its principles are also valuable for students pursuing graduate studies, helping them secure internships, research positions, and even navigate the graduate program application process.

Examining the Data: Physics Grads in the Workforce

Nearly half of all physics bachelor’s degree holders in the US directly enter the workforce. Among these, approximately two-thirds find employment in the private sector, demonstrating the strong industry demand for physics skills.

Alt Text: Pie chart showing employment sectors of physics bachelor’s graduates, highlighting private sector, education, government, and other areas.

Alt Text: Bar chart displaying the initial employment fields of physics bachelor’s degree recipients, with engineering, computer science, and research as prominent categories.

Alt Text: Word cloud illustrating key skills utilized by physics bachelor’s graduates in their jobs, emphasizing problem-solving, analytical thinking, and technical skills.

Exploring Options, Finding Opportunities: Your Career Tool Box

The breadth of career paths available to physics bachelor’s graduates is encouraging, but navigating these options can feel daunting. This section provides essential resources and strategies within your career tool box to help you explore possibilities and create your own opportunities.

Alt Text: Image of a compass and map, symbolizing career exploration and direction for physics graduates.

Alt Text: Icon representing Tool #1, “Common Job Titles,” in a career tool box, visually suggesting a list or directory.

Tool #1: Decoding Common Job Titles for Physics Majors

Physics majors are employed across a remarkable spectrum of professions—from engineering and information technology to finance, writing, medicine, law, and even fields like history and music. The versatility of a physics background is truly expansive. To begin narrowing your focus, explore this curated list of common job titles held by physics bachelor’s graduates entering the workforce. Identify roles that spark your interest and align with your aspirations.

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Roll Up Your Sleeves: Actionable Steps for Tool #1

Identify Common Employment Areas: Research the primary sectors where physics bachelor’s graduates typically find employment.
Explore Job Titles: Review a comprehensive list of job titles commonly held by physics bachelor’s degree recipients.
Utilize Resources: Discover valuable resources for further exploring job titles and career paths.

Get to Work: Diving Deeper into Job Titles

Common Areas of Employment for Physics Graduates

Engineering:

Engineering fields attract the largest proportion of physics bachelor’s graduates entering STEM careers. The analytical and problem-solving skills honed in physics are directly transferable and highly valued in various engineering disciplines.

Computer Hardware and Software:

The second most prevalent area for physics graduates is computer hardware and software. This encompasses roles in programming, modeling, simulation, and data analysis. The term “analyst” frequently appears in this sector, reflecting the demand for strong mathematical and software skills, particularly in areas like finance and data science.

Research and Technical Roles:

Physics graduates often pursue careers in scientific research and laboratory environments. Their research experience and technical expertise make them well-suited for roles in both academic and industrial research settings.

Education:

Educators with physics bachelor’s degrees primarily teach science at the middle or high school level. Notably, approximately half of all high school physics teachers in the United States teach predominantly or exclusively physics, while the other half teach related subjects like chemistry and mathematics.

Common Job Titles for Physics Bachelors

These job titles are derived from surveys conducted by the Statistical Research Center of the American Institute of Physics, focusing on physics bachelor’s graduates from the classes of 2009 and 2010. This list is not exhaustive but provides a strong representation of typical roles.

Engineering Job Titles:

Systems Engineer
Electrical Engineer
Design Engineer
Mechanical Engineer
Project Engineer
Optical Engineer
Manufacturing Engineer
Manufacturing Technician
Laser Engineer
Associate Engineer
Application Engineer
Development Engineer
Engineering Technician
Field Engineer
Process Engineer
Process Technician
Product Engineer
Product Manager
Research Engineer
Test Engineer
General Engineer
Technical Services Engineer

Computer Hardware / Software Job Titles:

Software Engineer
Programmer
Web Developer
IT Consultant
Systems Analyst
Technical Support Staff
Analyst

Education Job Titles:

High School Physics Teacher
High School Science Teacher
Middle School Science Teacher

Research and Technical Job Titles:

Research Assistant
Research Associate
Research Technician
Lab Technician
Lab Assistant
Accelerator Operator
Physical Sciences Technician

Essential Resources for Job Title Exploration

To delve deeper into profiles of individuals with physics degrees working across diverse fields, explore these valuable resources:

Careers Using Physics: Society of Physics Students
Physics Central – People Profiles: American Physical Society
Physicist Profiles: American Physical Society
Physics.org Career Profiles: Institute of Physics
Physics Alumni on LinkedIn: LinkedIn (Search for your school’s alumni and filter by “Physics” to see career paths of graduates)
Job Titles Requiring Physics Knowledge: US Department of Labor O*NET
Who’s Hiring Physics Bachelors?: AIP Statistical Research Center

Alt Text: Icon representing Tool #2, “Informational Interviews,” in a career tool box, visually suggesting a conversation or meeting.

Tool #2: Mastering Informational Interviews: Gaining Insider Insights

Once you have identified job titles that intrigue you, the next crucial step in your career tool box is to gather detailed information about the realities of each role. Informational interviews are an invaluable technique—professional, yet informal, meetings with individuals working in jobs that you are considering.

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Roll Up Your Sleeves: Actionable Steps for Tool #2

Understand the Concept: Grasp the fundamental purpose and structure of informational interviews.
Recognize the Benefits: Learn why informational interviews are a powerful tool for career exploration.
Preparation is Key: Master the steps involved in effectively preparing for informational interviews.
Example Questions: Utilize sample questions to guide your conversations and extract valuable insights.
Follow-Up Strategies: Learn the importance of post-interview follow-up to solidify connections and maximize benefits.

Get to Work: Conducting Effective Informational Interviews

The Basic Concept of Informational Interviews

An informational interview is a focused, professional conversation with someone working in a job or industry that interests you. You initiate the meeting to ask specific questions about their role, their company, and the overall industry. The goal is to assess how well your interests, skills, and knowledge align with that particular career path. By conducting multiple informational interviews, you gain a comprehensive understanding of different career options, allowing you to identify paths that resonate with you—and those that do not. This process also allows you to explore diverse career fields efficiently within a relatively short timeframe.

Why Conduct Informational Interviews? Key Benefits

Direct Industry Insights: Informational interviews provide firsthand knowledge about specific jobs and industries. Faculty advisors, while valuable, may have limited experience outside academia, making industry professionals essential sources of practical career information.
Job-Specific Language and Culture: These interviews expose you to industry-specific jargon and workplace culture, which is invaluable for resume writing, networking, and future job searches.
Real-World Job Environment: Informational interviews offer a glimpse into the daily work environment, helping you determine if a particular workplace culture and job setting are a good fit for your preferences.
Expert Career Advice: You gain the opportunity to seek personalized career advice from professionals in the field, leading to more informed career decisions and potentially guiding your educational choices.
Networking Opportunities: Informational interviews are a low-pressure way to initiate professional relationships and expand your network of contacts authentically.
Communication Skill Development: You enhance your communication skills and build self-confidence in professional interactions, preparing you for future job interviews and networking events.

Finding People to Interview: Expanding Your Network

Begin by researching general career fields (e.g., data science, renewable energy) and specific job titles within those fields (e.g., data analyst, solar energy engineer) using your list from Tool #1. Once you have narrowed down your areas of interest, actively seek out potential interviewees in those sectors and organizations that appeal to you.

Making Contacts: Leveraging Your Existing Network

Tap into your existing network for potential contacts. Reach out to friends, family, neighbors, professors, campus career services, and alumni associations for suggestions of individuals working in your fields of interest. Many universities have alumni mentoring networks specifically designed to connect students with professionals. LinkedIn and other social media platforms are also valuable resources for identifying and contacting professionals. While interviewing individuals with physics degrees can be beneficial, don’t limit yourself. Seek perspectives from professionals across diverse backgrounds. Build a list of potential interviewees based on shared interests, perceived enthusiasm for their work, and workplace preferences (e.g., office environment, research lab, etc.).

Scheduling the Interview: Professional Communication

Once you have a list of potential interviewees, contact them professionally via email or phone. Clearly introduce yourself, explain your purpose for contacting them (career exploration as a physics student), and mention if you received their name from a mutual contact. Be concise and respectful of their time, requesting a brief 15-20 minute phone interview or a 20-30 minute face-to-face meeting if they are local. Emphasize that you are seeking information and advice, not a job.

Respect the interviewee’s time by adhering to the agreed-upon timeframe. If possible, meeting at their workplace can provide valuable insights into the company culture. Remember, this is not a job interview. Bring your resume or business cards if you wish, but avoid directly asking about job openings or offering your resume unless specifically requested.

Preparing for the Discussion: Targeted Questions

To maximize the value of the limited time, prepare your questions in advance. Write them down and bring them to the interview along with a notepad for taking notes. Aim for 4-6 well-crafted questions to allow time for follow-up and a natural conversation within the allotted timeframe.

Example Questions for Informational Interviews

What are your typical daily duties and responsibilities in your current role?
What are the essential skills needed to succeed in this type of job?
What are the most satisfying, challenging, and frustrating aspects of your job?
Can you describe the atmosphere and culture of your workplace?
Where are job openings typically advertised in this field?
How well does this job allow for a healthy work-life balance?
What personal characteristics are particularly important for success in this field (e.g., attention to detail, creativity, leadership)?
What professional organizations or trade associations are relevant in this field?
What advice would you give to an undergraduate student looking to enter this field?
Are there other individuals you would recommend I contact for further information?
Do you have any advice on building an effective resume that would be attractive to companies in this industry?

Following Up After the Informational Interview: Professional Courtesy

Send a Thank-You Note: Within a few days of the interview, send a brief, personalized thank-you note (email is acceptable) to express your appreciation for their time and insights. Mention something specific you found particularly helpful or insightful from the conversation.
Reflect and Plan Next Steps: Document what you learned from the interview and identify concrete next steps. For example, if the interviewee suggested joining a professional society, make a note to research membership.
Follow Up on Leads: If the interviewee provided referrals to other contacts or opportunities, promptly follow up with an email, call, or brief note, referencing your conversation.

Alt Text: Icon representing Tool #3, “Gaining Experience,” in a career tool box, visually suggesting hands-on work or practical application.

Tool #3: Gaining Practical Experience: Beyond the Classroom

While academic achievements like your major and GPA are important, employers also prioritize practical experience. They seek candidates who have demonstrated relevant skills in real-world settings. Your career tool box must include strategies for gaining experience through internships, research, campus involvement, and more.

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Roll Up Your Sleeves: Actionable Steps for Tool #3

Explore Research Opportunities: Investigate research experiences both on and off campus.
Pursue Internships & Co-ops: Actively seek out internship and co-op opportunities in your fields of interest.
Engage in Campus Life: Get involved in campus organizations and leadership roles.
Volunteer and Serve: Participate in volunteering and service-learning initiatives to develop skills and contribute to your community.
Develop Personal Projects: Undertake entrepreneurial ventures or personal projects to showcase initiative and skills.
Consider Teaching Roles: Explore student teaching or teaching assistantships if you are interested in education.

Get to Work: Building Your Experience Portfolio

Research Experiences: Deepening Your Scientific Skills

While coursework provides a foundation in experimental techniques, sustained research experiences offer a deeper understanding of research as a career. Most undergraduate research opportunities involve working with faculty members, often for course credit or as a volunteer. Paid research positions are also available depending on departmental funding. Research experience, even for a single semester, is crucial if you plan to pursue graduate studies. It significantly enhances your communication skills, reinforces classroom learning, and provides concrete examples of your skills for your resume.

To initiate this process, review department websites to learn about faculty research areas. Contact faculty members whose research aligns with your interests and request a meeting to discuss their work. Be prepared by researching their specialties beforehand. Bring a copy of your CV or resume in case they request it. If their research projects seem appealing, inquire about potential openings in their lab. Faculty can also guide you to other research opportunities, both on and off campus, that match your interests. If you decide to apply for competitive programs like Research Experiences for Undergraduates (REUs), be prepared to invest significant time in your application, which will likely include a resume, personal statement, transcripts, and letters of recommendation.

Internships & Co-ops: Structured Workplace Learning

Internships and co-operative education (co-ops) are structured, supervised learning experiences in professional settings directly related to your field of study. Most internships last at least one semester and require a regular weekly time commitment. Internships can be full-time or part-time, with summer being a popular internship period. Co-ops are a unique type of internship that involve alternating semesters of full-time work and full-time study. Co-op programs typically extend graduation timelines beyond four years, but co-op students are often offered full-time employment by their co-op organization after graduation. Many colleges allow students to earn independent study credit for internships and co-ops – explore this option!

Securing an internship or co-op follows a similar process to job searching. You need to identify opportunities, prepare a resume, and potentially participate in interviews. Utilize the tools outlined in this career tool box to narrow your options and strengthen your applications. Your college career center is also an invaluable resource for internship and co-op guidance.

Don’t forget to explore jobs.spsnational.org for potential positions, including internships, REUs, and co-ops, in your local area and across the nation. SPS Jobs is a comprehensive resource for physics-related opportunities.

Campus Involvement: Leadership and Teamwork Skills

Leadership roles in campus organizations, particularly national groups like the Society of Physics Students (SPS), demonstrate valuable skills to employers. Highlight your impact through leadership positions and document your accomplishments and their outcomes. This could include membership recruitment, event organization and improvement, influencing campus policy, or developing efficient systems for group operations.

Many campuses host student organization fairs at the beginning of each academic year or semester. Take advantage of these events to explore available organizations and identify areas where you’d like to contribute. However, focus on meaningful engagement. Employers prefer to see commitment to a few organizations where you make a real difference rather than superficial involvement in many.

Volunteering and Service-Learning: Community Engagement and Skill Development

Community service is an integral part of civic engagement and also enhances your employability. Invest your time in volunteer opportunities and organizations that align with your interests and allow you to utilize your skills effectively. Go beyond one-time events like 5Ks or fundraisers. Seek opportunities to participate in the planning and execution of service projects. Demonstrating commitment to a service project from start to finish provides strong evidence to employers of your dedication and value to their organization. Non-profit organizations may be particularly enthusiastic about your developing skills in areas like web design or database management, offering opportunities to refine and expand these skills beyond what you might find in the private sector.

Remember, outreach activities through your SPS chapter are a valuable form of community service!

Personal Projects and Entrepreneurship: Initiative and Innovation

Have you designed a website, developed an app, maintained a blog, built a robot, or even started a small business? These types of experiences, where you apply your skills to projects and larger goals, are excellent ways to cultivate the attributes employers seek. Initiative, resourcefulness, perseverance through challenges, and a commitment to excellence are key components of these experiences and highly valued by employers.

Student Teaching and Teaching Assistantships: Exploring Education Careers

If you are interested in a teaching career, explore opportunities within your department. Many departments hire students as teaching assistants to assist in classrooms, grade assignments, or provide tutoring services. Inquire with your advisor and department about these roles. They are a valuable way to deepen your subject knowledge and gain firsthand experience in education. Undergraduate teaching roles offer a chance to “test drive” a teaching career. Also, consider tutoring positions, physics help labs, and service-learning courses with an educational focus.

Alt Text: Icon representing Tool #4, “Networking,” in a career tool box, visually suggesting connections and social interaction.

Tool #4: Networking: Building Your Professional Web

Strong academic credentials are essential for job searching, but networking—building professional relationships—is equally vital. Networking broadens your access to opportunities and provides invaluable advice and guidance throughout your career journey. Your career tool box must include effective networking strategies.

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Roll Up Your Sleeves: Actionable Steps for Tool #4

Networking Tips: Learn key strategies for effective networking in professional settings.
Craft Your Elevator Speech: Develop a concise and compelling “elevator speech” to introduce yourself professionally.

Get to Work: Mastering the Art of Networking

Networking Tips for Physics Professionals

Prepare a Concise “Elevator Speech”

An elevator speech is a brief, 30-second introduction of yourself. It’s a powerful tool for making a memorable first impression in networking situations.

Network Everywhere, All the Time

Recognize that every event, conference, or gathering is a potential networking opportunity. Be open to connecting with new people in diverse settings.

Focus on Helping Others: Reciprocal Relationships

Networking is about building genuine connections, not just advancing your own career. Think about what skills, knowledge, or connections you can offer to new contacts. Networking is a two-way street.

Attend Physics and STEM Meetings and Conferences

Meetings of scientific societies and professional organizations are excellent venues for meeting potential employers, researchers, and mentors in your field.

Get Involved and Be Active

Attend professional events both on and off campus. Ask insightful questions and practice delivering your elevator speech in various settings to build confidence.

Ask Open-Ended Questions to Start Conversations

A simple and effective conversation starter is, “So, what do you do?” This invites others to share their professional experiences and opens doors for further discussion.

Exchange Contact Information Professionally

Business cards are a valuable networking tool. Exchange business cards to easily share your contact information, make a positive impression, and project professionalism.

Leverage Online Networking Platforms

Utilize professional networking sites like LinkedIn to maintain contact with new connections, stay updated on industry trends, and expand your professional network online.

Cultivate and Nurture Relationships Over Time

Networking is not just about initial connections; it’s about building lasting relationships. Send periodic updates to your network to share your academic progress, job search status, or pass along relevant information or articles of interest. Building a strong foundation with each contact is key to long-term networking success.

Project a Positive and Enthusiastic Attitude

You never know when or where you might meet someone who can connect you to your next opportunity. Maintain a positive and approachable demeanor in all networking interactions.

Crafting Your Elevator Speech: Your 30-Second Introduction

Your elevator speech is a 30-second summary of who you are, what you’ve accomplished, and your career aspirations. Think of it as a mini-conversation starter designed to open the door for deeper engagement with a new connection.

Practice your elevator speech frequently so you can deliver it smoothly and confidently when opportunities arise. However, avoid sounding overly rehearsed or robotic. Aim for a natural and engaging delivery.

Imagine you are in line for coffee at a conference and a Nobel laureate is standing next to you. This is your moment! While a selfie might be tempting, prioritize delivering your elevator speech to initiate a professional connection.

Your elevator speech should concisely communicate:

Who you are: Briefly introduce yourself and your academic background (e.g., “I’m a physics undergraduate student at [University Name]”).
What you’ve accomplished: Highlight key achievements, skills, or experiences (e.g., “I’ve been working on research in astrophysics and developed strong data analysis skills”).
Where you hope to go: Share your career interests and aspirations (e.g., “I’m interested in exploring careers in aerospace engineering”).
What you are passionate about: Convey your enthusiasm for physics and your chosen field (e.g., “I’m passionate about space exploration and contributing to the future of space technology”).

The Missing Link: Translating Physics Skills for Employers

Physics graduates possess a powerful skillset applicable to diverse roles, but many hiring managers may not fully grasp the breadth of the undergraduate physics experience. This section of your career tool box focuses on bridging this gap by helping you translate your physics education into a language that resonates with potential employers. Learn how to articulate your knowledge, skills, and abilities in a way that highlights your value in the job market.

Alt Text: Icon representing Tool #5, “Assessing Your Knowledge and Skills,” in a career tool box, visually suggesting self-reflection and skill identification.

Tool #5: Assessing Your Knowledge and Skills: Articulating Your Value

To stand out in a competitive job market, you must effectively communicate your strengths and qualifications. This requires accurately and persuasively representing yourself both in writing (resume and cover letter) and in person (networking and interviews). A thorough assessment of your knowledge and skills is the foundation for successful self-presentation and a critical component of your career tool box.

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Roll Up Your Sleeves: Actionable Steps for Tool #5

Identify Key Skills: Recognize the knowledge and skills commonly utilized by physics bachelor’s graduates in the private sector.
Recognize Common Skill Sets: Understand the typical skill sets developed by physics students through their education and experiences.
Skill Categories: Analyze your skills in areas such as laboratory instruments, research, computer proficiency, communication, analysis, teamwork, and problem-solving.

Get to Work: Identifying and Articulating Your Skills

Alt Text: Chart listing knowledge and skills commonly acquired by physics bachelor’s graduates, categorized into technical skills, analytical skills, communication skills, and interpersonal skills.

Working with Laboratory Instruments: Hands-on Technical Expertise

Virtually all physics curricula include laboratory courses throughout the undergraduate program, culminating in advanced labs, senior thesis projects, or capstone experiences. Through these labs, physics students gain hands-on experience with a wide array of instruments, including optical components, electronics, machine shop tools, vacuum systems, telescopes, and spectrographs. They develop practical skills in instrument operation, maintenance, repair, quality control, and troubleshooting—all highly valuable in technical roles.

Conducting Research: Analytical and Investigative Abilities

Physics majors are strongly encouraged to engage in open-ended research. This can include on-campus research with professors, off-campus research experiences (REUs, internships), independent research projects, or course-based research projects. Research experiences cultivate higher-order skills and knowledge, such as research design, data analysis, creative thinking, critical thinking, error analysis, and complex problem-solving. A frequently overlooked but crucial skill developed through research is the ability to find, read, analyze, and synthesize relevant background information—a valuable asset across diverse professional settings.

Proficiency with Computer Hardware and Software: Technical Versatility

Physics coursework and research often provide extensive opportunities to develop proficiency in computer hardware and software. Many physics majors write original code or modify existing programs, utilize statistical analysis software, and apply modeling, image processing, and simulation techniques in research. Furthermore, students often use programs like LabVIEW for equipment control and data acquisition, or even design custom interfaces for specialized applications.

Communicating Complex Ideas Effectively: Clear and Concise Communication

Beyond general education requirements, physics students develop strong written communication skills through technical lab reports and research papers—core components of the physics curriculum. Physics students may also have opportunities to publish research in professional journals or communicate science to non-technical audiences, such as through school newspapers or outreach activities. Oral communication skills are honed through presenting research and class projects in oral presentations, a common experience for physics undergraduates.

Analysis and Quantitative Thinking: Data-Driven Problem Solving

Physics students demonstrate a robust ability to apply mathematical principles to real-world problems. This analytical and quantitative skillset is particularly valuable in STEM fields. Employers highly value analytical skills, which encompass managing information effectively, thinking logically, and interpreting data. Quantitative analysis skills are essential for thoroughly examining problems and developing data-driven solutions. The quantitative intuition developed through years of physics coursework and problem sets is a unique strength of physics graduates. Relatedly, the ability to analyze information and discern relevant data from extraneous information is honed through extensive lab work and problem-solving exercises.

Working Effectively with Others: Teamwork and Collaboration

Many physics students participate in research teams, are active in campus organizations like the Society of Physics Students, and gain experience through group projects. Don’t underestimate the importance of these collaborative experiences. Teamwork, collaboration, leadership, and decision-making are highly valued by employers and are demonstrably developed through effective group work. Successfully navigating teamwork dynamics is often a crucial aspect of professional roles.

Problem Solving and Critical Thinking: Adaptability and Innovation

Underlying all these skills is the fundamental ability to solve problems—to analyze situations, identify challenges, and develop creative solutions. Physics students consistently engage in problem-solving in labs, research, and coursework. They learn to find solutions through literature reviews, online resources, collaboration with peers, experimentation, and logical reasoning. This problem-solving prowess is incredibly valuable to all types of employers, as effective problem solvers save time, resources, and contribute to innovation.

Getting to Work: Strategies for Job Search Success

How can you differentiate yourself from other job applicants, particularly when some may have more directly related experience or degrees? This section of your career tool box highlights key strategies to enhance your chances of securing interviews and landing your desired job.

Alt Text: Icon representing Tool #6, “Effective Job Searching,” in a career tool box, visually suggesting a magnifying glass and job listings.

Tool #6: Effective Job Searching: Finding the Right Opportunities

Many believe that landing a dream job solely depends on a stellar resume, cover letter, and interview performance. While these are crucial, the first step is finding the right job opportunities. Effective job searching, a core component of your career tool box, involves focusing your efforts on positions that align with your skills and career goals. For physics graduates, this means knowing which job boards to explore, how to prepare for job fairs, and how to leverage your professional network.

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Roll Up Your Sleeves: Actionable Steps for Tool #6

Leverage Networking: Utilize your professional network to uncover job leads and opportunities.
Explore Online Databases: Utilize online job databases to search for relevant job postings.
Attend Job Fairs Strategically: Prepare effectively for job fairs to make valuable connections.
Consider Teaching Careers: Explore the possibility of a rewarding career in education.
Identify Target Employers: Research companies and organizations hiring physics bachelor’s graduates.
Assess Job Fit: Determine how to evaluate whether a job opportunity is a good match for your skills and aspirations.
Understand Salary Expectations: Research salary ranges for physics bachelor’s graduates in different sectors and locations.

Get to Work: Implementing Effective Job Search Strategies

Networking for Job Opportunities

Many individuals secure employment through their professional networks. Your faculty members, colleagues, family, friends, LinkedIn connections, campus career services, contacts from professional society meetings, and other network members are valuable resources in your job search.

Don’t hesitate to inform your network that you are actively seeking employment. Most people are willing to assist students by offering advice, leads, and even making introductions. When reaching out to professional contacts, remind them of how you connected or where you met. In many cases, it is more effective to ask for advice or leads rather than directly requesting a job.

Online Job Search Resources

Online job databases are powerful tools for finding job openings. Note that many positions suitable for physics graduates may not appear in a keyword search for “physics.” Utilize the list of common job titles from Tool #1 to broaden your search. Here are some valuable STEM-focused job databases:

SPS Jobs: jobs.spsnational.org – Features bachelor’s-level positions appropriate for physics applicants, as well as opportunities for graduates at all degree levels.
USAJobs: usajobs.gov – The official job list of the U.S. federal government, including positions at NASA, NIST, and other federal laboratories.
Science Careers: jobs.sciencecareers.org – A global database of job postings for scientists across disciplines and experience levels.
Engineer Jobs: engineerjobs.com – An extensive database of engineering job opportunities in the United States and Canada.
IEEE Careers: careers.ieee.org – Job site of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, with a portal for entry-level engineering positions.
Glassdoor: glassdoor.com – Aggregates job listings and provides company reviews and salary data, offering insights into workplace culture.
LinkedIn Jobs: linkedin.com – In addition to networking, LinkedIn hosts job postings, often targeted towards students and recent graduates.
Indeed: indeed.com – A large job search engine that aggregates listings from thousands of websites.
Idealist: idealist.org – A platform connecting non-profit organizations, volunteers, and consultants, often featuring STEM outreach and education positions.

Job Fairs: Making In-Person Connections

Even before you are actively applying for jobs, attend job fairs to explore available positions, understand employer skill requirements, and practice your elevator speech. The list of common job titles from Tool #1 can help you effectively communicate with job fair representatives who may be unfamiliar with the diverse roles physics graduates successfully fill.

The challenge for physics students at job fairs is articulating their skills in a way that is meaningful to potential employers. Representatives from engineering firms, for example, may not realize that physics graduates often excel in engineering roles. It’s your responsibility to demonstrate your suitability and value as a candidate.

Considering a Career in Teaching

Teaching offers a rewarding path to share your passion for physics and astronomy while making a positive impact on students. A career in education may be overlooked during undergraduate physics studies, but it is a viable and fulfilling option. Even without a specific teaching license or education degree, transitioning into teaching from physics is achievable.

Begin by exploring school district websites to identify job openings and understand position requirements. Reach out to your network for contacts within school districts. License requirements vary by state, and information can be found on each state’s Department of Education website. Most public schools, some charter schools, and a few private schools require teaching licenses. Some schools prioritize candidates with degrees in the subject area they wish to teach. If a license is required and you don’t have one, apply for an alternative license through your state in addition to job applications. Alternative license candidates may not be prioritized, but networking and strong recommendations can be helpful. Substitute teaching before applying for full-time positions is a valuable way to gain experience, build connections, and demonstrate your passion and qualifications for teaching physics, math, and related subjects.

Identifying Employers Hiring Physics Bachelors

Discover companies hiring physics bachelor’s graduates in your state by utilizing the American Institute of Physics Statistical Research Center resource: Who’s Hiring Physics Bachelors?.

Assessing Job Application Fit: Key Considerations

Focus on Qualifications: Carefully review the job qualifications. In many cases, you don’t need to meet every qualification if you can effectively demonstrate your transferable skills and relevant experience in your cover letter and resume. For example, if a job posting requests an “engineering degree,” your physics degree may be considered if you highlight the engineering-relevant skills you’ve developed.
Identify Keywords and Responsibilities: Look for keywords describing the position’s responsibilities and assess how well they align with your skills, abilities, and interests.
Company Research and Alignment: Research the company online to understand their mission, reputation, and culture. Determine if they align with your values, ambitions, and consider salary and location suitability.

Salary Expectations for Physics Bachelors

Physics bachelor’s graduates often earn some of the highest starting salaries among undergraduate majors. Salaries vary depending on the specific field and sector, with private sector positions typically offering the highest compensation. When evaluating salary, consider factors like the cost of living in the job location and benefits packages, including retirement plans, flexible work arrangements, health insurance, and transportation allowances. Understanding your market value and the full compensation package strengthens your negotiation position.

Alt Text: Icon representing Tool #7, “Building Your Resume,” in a career tool box, visually suggesting a resume document and writing tools.

Tool #7: Building Your Resume: Your Professional Summary

A resume is a concise summary of your qualifications for employment. It is often the first and only piece of information a potential employer uses to decide whether to grant you an interview. Therefore, creating a compelling and effective resume, a vital tool in your career tool box, is crucial.

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Roll Up Your Sleeves: Actionable Steps for Tool #7

Resume vs. CV: Understand the differences between a resume and a curriculum vitae (CV) and when to use each.
Resume Essentials: Identify the key components and essential elements of an effective resume.
Suggested Resume Sections: Learn about recommended sections to include in your resume for maximum impact.
Tailor Your Resume: Understand the importance of customizing your resume for each specific job application.
Action Verbs: Utilize strong action verbs to describe your accomplishments and skills effectively.
Resume Examples: Review sample resumes for inspiration and formatting guidance.

Get to Work: Crafting a Powerful Resume

Resumes vs. CVs: Understanding the Distinction

Creating a resume for work or research positions during your undergraduate studies is essential. A resume is a concise document highlighting your knowledge and skills relevant to a specific position. It differs significantly from a curriculum vitae (CV), which is a more comprehensive record of your academic and professional history, typically used for academic positions (postdoctoral roles, faculty positions). Students considering an academic career should begin developing a CV even as undergraduates, in addition to maintaining a resume for non-academic opportunities. The key differences between resumes and CVs lie in length, content, and level of detail.

Resume Essentials: Key Components of an Effective Resume

Resumes consist of several components, but the most critical for physics students is a detailed articulation of knowledge and skills directly relevant to the specific job you are applying for. Skills-based resumes, which emphasize your abilities and competencies, are highly recommended for physics graduates. Crucially, expect to tailor your resume for every single job application to maximize relevance.

Style and Length Considerations for Resumes

Experts and employers hold diverse opinions on resume best practices. When organizing your resume, consider these key questions:

Storytelling Effectiveness: Does your resume effectively communicate your professional narrative and highlight your key strengths?
Accuracy and Authenticity: Is your resume an accurate and genuine representation of your skills, experiences, and qualifications?
Readability and Visual Layout: Is your resume visually appealing and easy to read? Does the layout effectively differentiate between sections and highlight key information?

For detailed guidance on specific resume components, formatting, and style, consult your school’s career services professionals. Remember, customizing your resume for each job application is essential for maximizing your chances of securing an interview.

Suggested Resume Sections for Physics Graduates

Knowledge and Skills Section: Highlighting Relevant Competencies

Carefully compare your skills and abilities to the requirements listed in the job description. In your resume for that particular job, prioritize listing the skills most relevant to the employer’s needs first.

Experience Section: Showcasing Practical Application

Include all relevant experiences (jobs, internships, research, service, leadership roles, projects) in reverse chronological order. Use clear section headers to prioritize more relevant experiences higher on the page. Write concise and impactful descriptions of each experience, emphasizing your skills and using action-oriented language to quantify your contributions whenever possible.

Education Section: Academic Background and Credentials

List your degree(s), institution(s), and expected graduation date (if applicable). Include double majors and minors. Use reverse chronological order for educational history. You may include honors, awards, and scholarships with brief explanations, especially if they are relevant to the position. Many recruiters look for GPA; include yours if it is above a 3.0.

Other Information Section: Additional Relevant Details

This section can include affiliations with professional organizations and societies, extracurricular activities (especially leadership roles, e.g., SPS chapter officer), and relevant hobbies or interests.

Targeting Your Resume: Customization for Each Job

Tailoring your resume to each job application significantly increases your chances of getting an interview. When applying for a new position, revisit your skills list and modify an existing resume to align it more closely with the specific job ad. Make it easy for the employer to see why you are a strong candidate by highlighting the skills and experiences most relevant to the job description prominently and in detail.

Action Verbs: Power Words for Resume Descriptions

Use strong action verbs to begin phrases describing your accomplishments and responsibilities in the Experience section of your resume. Be as specific as possible about the impact you made in each role.

Action Verbs PDF

Sample Resumes for Physics Graduates

Example Resumes PDF

Alt Text: Icon representing Tool #8, “Writing an Effective Cover Letter,” in a career tool box, visually suggesting a letter document and writing tools.

Tool #8: Writing an Effective Cover Letter: Your Personal Introduction

The cover letter is your first opportunity to make a personal connection with a prospective employer. Always submit a cover letter along with your resume when applying for a job, even if it is not explicitly requested in the job advertisement. A well-crafted cover letter is particularly important when applying for positions that don’t specifically require a physics degree, as it allows you to highlight why your physics background makes you a strong candidate. Your career tool box is incomplete without a strategy for writing compelling cover letters.

Learn More

Roll Up Your Sleeves: Actionable Steps for Tool #8

Cover Letter Basics: Understand the fundamental structure and key components of a standard cover letter.
Cover Letter Tips: Learn effective strategies for writing persuasive and impactful cover letters.
Maximize Your Opportunity: Discover how to leverage your cover letter to its fullest potential to impress employers.

Get to Work: Crafting Compelling Cover Letters

Cover Letter Basics: Structure and Key Elements

The Opening: Professional Salutation

If the job advertisement lists a specific contact person, address your cover letter directly to that individual. If no specific name is provided, “Dear Hiring Manager” is an appropriate salutation.

The Beginning Paragraph: State Your Purpose

The opening paragraph should be concise. Clearly identify the specific position you are applying for and express your interest in the opportunity.

The Middle Paragraph(s): Connect Your Skills to Job Requirements

This is the core of your cover letter, typically one or two paragraphs in length. The goal is to explicitly connect aspects of your background, skills, and experience to the specific requirements outlined in the job description. Highlight phrases from your resume that directly align with the job requirements.

The Closing Paragraph: Express Enthusiasm and Next Steps

Thank the employer for considering your application and express your anticipation for the opportunity to discuss the position further in person. It’s appropriate to convey your enthusiasm for the position and the company.

Cover Letter Tips for Physics Graduates

Effectively connect the requirements stated in the job advertisement with your experiences, skills, knowledge, and background in your cover letter. In essence, highlight specific phrases from your resume that directly match the job description or stated requirements. Provide concrete examples of your experiences and abilities. For example: “I have over two years of experience using [specific software/equipment], the type of equipment mentioned as essential for this position.”

Provide evidence of your valuable soft skills. Include interpersonal skills such as time management, initiative, dependability, self-motivation, organization, planning, and professionalism. However, avoid simply listing generic traits. Select one or two key skills to emphasize and illustrate them with specific examples rather than providing a broad, unconvincing list. For example: “As a result of my dependability and leadership skills, I was promoted to manager within six months of starting at [Previous Company Name].”

Maximizing Your Cover Letter’s Impact

Demonstrate Strong Writing Skills

The cover letter is a professional communication; however, it doesn’t need to be dry or unengaging. Always use active voice and strong verbs. Meticulously proofread for spelling and grammar errors. Eloquent writing can elevate your application and move your resume to the top of the candidate pool. Seek feedback from university career services, professors, or trusted friends for critical review and editorial comments on your draft. Avoid generic adjectives; instead, aim for a genuine, straightforward, and engaging tone.

Emphasize Your Value Proposition: What You Will Contribute

Use your cover letter to convey what you will contribute to the company, not just how the job will personally benefit you. For example, instead of “This job will give me valuable experience,” write “I am excited by the prospect of using my data manipulation skills to help your team more efficiently process images, contributing to [Company Name]’s success in [Company Goal].” Focus on expressing enthusiasm for aspects of the role that also benefit the company and align with their objectives.

Alt Text: Icon representing Tool #9, “Acing the Interview,” in a career tool box, visually suggesting a successful interview scenario with a handshake.

Tool #9: Acing the Interview: Making a Lasting Impression

An interview is a two-way evaluation. It’s an opportunity for you and the employer to assess whether the position is a good “fit” for both parties. The employer is presenting the job to you, and you are showcasing yourself by elaborating on the content of your resume and cover letter. The interview is your chance to solidify your candidacy and convince the employer that you are the best choice for the position. Mastering interview skills is the final, crucial tool in your career tool box.

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Roll Up Your Sleeves: Actionable Steps for Tool #9

Increase Interview Odds: Learn strategies to improve your chances of securing job interviews.
Interview Preparation: Master the essential steps to prepare effectively for job interviews.
Phone/Virtual Interview Tips: Understand specific strategies for excelling in phone and virtual interview formats.
Face-to-Face Interview Tips: Learn best practices for making a positive impression in face-to-face interviews.
Sample Interview Questions: Review common interview questions to prepare your responses.

Get to Work: Mastering Interview Performance

Increasing Your Odds of Getting an Interview

The reality is that interview selection is influenced by various factors—the interviewer’s mood, pre-existing internal candidates, application ranking methods, the job posting duration, and even external factors like the weather. However, by adhering to best practices and submitting thoughtful, targeted resumes and cover letters for positions that genuinely align with your skills and career goals, you significantly increase your chances of being selected for an interview. Furthermore, the preparation you’ve already undertaken in crafting your resume and cover letter provides a strong foundation for interview preparation.

Preparing for a Successful Interview: Key Steps

Research Your Interviewers and the Company: Thoroughly research the individuals who will be interviewing you, the company, the specific department, and any other relevant information in advance. Demonstrate your informed interest in the organization.
Conduct Mock Interviews for Practice: Practice answering common interview questions out loud and seek feedback on your verbal and nonverbal communication. Mock interviews build confidence and refine your delivery.
Identify and Understand Your Strengths and Weaknesses: Prepare to discuss your key strengths and areas for development. These types of questions become easier and more strategic with preparation.
Develop Specific Stories to Demonstrate Skills: Prepare specific examples and stories that showcase your skills and abilities in action. Practice articulating these stories in response to common interview questions using the STAR method (Situation, Task, Action, Result).
Prepare Thoughtful Questions for the Interviewer: Prepare insightful questions to ask your interviewer. This demonstrates your engagement, interest, and professionalism, and thoughtful questions leave a positive impression.
Maintain Calmness and Composure: During the interview, remain calm and composed. If you are unsure how to answer a question, relax, take a deep breath, and pause to think before responding. It is perfectly acceptable to say “I don’t know,” but follow up by explaining how you would approach finding a solution or the information needed.
Be Aware of Illegal Interview Questions: Understand that employers are legally prohibited from asking direct questions about your race, ethnicity, citizenship, marital status, family planning, sexual orientation, religion, age, disabilities, military service, or organizational memberships. Some states also restrict employer inquiries about criminal records. Be prepared to politely redirect or address these questions professionally if they arise.

Tips for Phone or Virtual Interviews: Effective Remote Communication

In many cases, a phone or virtual interview is a preliminary step to a face-to-face interview. In some instances, phone or virtual interviews may replace in-person meetings entirely. Treat all interview formats with equal seriousness and professionalism. Ensure a quiet and professional environment for your virtual or phone interview.

Tips for Face-to-Face Interviews: Making a Strong In-Person Impression

Dress Professionally for the Role: Dress professionally, aligning your attire with the typical dress code for the position and industry you are interviewing for. Your attire should project confidence and demonstrate your seriousness about the opportunity. If unsure about appropriate attire, consult someone working in a similar role or research company culture online. It’s always better to be slightly overdressed than underdressed.
Maintain Professional Behavior at All Times: From the moment you arrive at the interview location, be on your best behavior. Treat everyone you encounter with respect, from reception staff to potential future colleagues. Your behavior outside the interview room also contributes to the overall impression you make.
Turn Off Your Phone Completely: Turn off your mobile phone completely before entering the facility. Don’t simply silence it; power it down to avoid any interruptions during the interview.
Follow Up After the Interview Promptly: After each interaction with interviewers, express your gratitude for their time. A thank-you letter is not just a courtesy; it’s another opportunity to reiterate your interest, showcase your writing skills, and provide any additional information you may not have covered during the interview. The best practice is to send a personalized thank-you email to each person you interviewed with within 24 hours of your interview. Following up with a handwritten thank-you note is an extra touch that can further enhance your impression.
Evaluating Job Offers Carefully: The goal of the interview process is to receive a job offer. Once you receive an offer, resist the urge to accept the first one immediately. Take time to carefully evaluate the offer, considering salary, benefits, company culture, and career growth potential. Once you accept an offer, you should cease all other job search activities and honor your commitment.
Sample Interview Questions to Prepare For: Review and practice responses to common interview questions.

Sample Interview Questions for Physics Graduates

Common Interview Questions:

Tell me about yourself.
Why are you interested in working for this company?
Tell me about your education and relevant coursework.
Why have you chosen this particular field or industry?
Describe your best/worst boss and what you learned from each.
What aspects of a job interest you most/least?
What is your major weakness, and how are you working to improve it?
Give an example of a time you solved a complex problem.
What are your key strengths and how do they relate to this position?
How would others describe you as a colleague or teammate?
What do you consider your greatest accomplishment in your previous role or projects?
Where do you see yourself professionally in three years?
Describe a time you experienced a setback or failure and what you learned from it.
How do you think you will contribute to our team and company operations?
If hired, what unique ideas or talents would you bring to this position and our company?
Give an example of when you demonstrated leadership and initiative.
Provide an example of your contributions to a successful team project.
What steps have you taken to develop professionally or learn new skills in recent years?
Do you have any questions for me about the position or the company?

Behavioral-Based Interview Questions:

(Adapted from www.thebalance.com)

Describe a situation where you used logic to solve a problem.
Give an example of a goal you achieved and explain how you accomplished it.
Describe a goal you didn’t meet and how you handled the situation.
Describe a stressful work situation and how you managed it effectively.
Tell me about your experience working effectively under pressure.
How do you typically handle a challenging project or task?
Have you ever been in a situation where you had limited work to do? How did you handle it?
Describe a mistake you made in a professional setting and how you addressed it.
Share an example of a decision you made that was unpopular and how you implemented it.
Have you ever made a risky decision? Why did you take the risk, and what was the outcome?
Describe a time you postponed making a decision. Why did you delay, and what was the result?
Have you ever disagreed with a company policy? How did you handle the situation professionally?
Share an example of when you went above and beyond your assigned duties.
When managing multiple projects, how do you prioritize tasks and deadlines effectively?
Describe how you handled meeting a tight deadline successfully.
Give an example of how you set goals and consistently achieve them.
Have you ever failed to meet your goals? What were the reasons, and what did you learn?
What do you do when your schedule is unexpectedly interrupted? Provide an example of your adaptability.
Have you had to persuade a team to work on a project they were initially reluctant about? How did you motivate them?
Give an example of your experience working effectively as part of a team.
Have you ever dealt with a difficult situation involving a co-worker? How did you resolve it professionally?
What do you do if you disagree with a co-worker’s approach or ideas?
Share an example of how you motivated employees or co-workers in a team setting.
How would you describe your listening skills? Provide an example of when you listened effectively or when you could have listened better.
Have you ever handled a challenging situation with a supervisor or manager? How did you approach it?
Describe a time you resolved a conflict with another department within a company.
Have you ever handled a difficult situation with a client or vendor? What steps did you take to resolve it?
What is your approach when you disagree with your boss’s direction or decision?

Career preparation is an ongoing and iterative process. Continuously revisit your skills and knowledge assessments, refine your elevator speech, and expand your professional network throughout your undergraduate career and beyond. As you develop new skills and gain diverse experiences, your career aspirations may evolve as well. By investing time in career preparation activities throughout your undergraduate journey, you will be well-prepared for a thoughtful and effective job search when the time comes.

Resources for Continued Career Development

Dig Deeper: Expanding Your Career Tool Box

Affecting Change in Your Department: Strategies for students to advocate for enhanced career preparation resources within their physics departments.
Recommended Online Resources: Curated list of valuable online resources for physics career exploration and development.
About the Careers Tool Box: Background information on the development and purpose of this career tool box.
Download the Careers Tool Box (PDF): Download Link – Access a downloadable PDF version of the complete career tool box.
Purchase the Careers Tool Box Book: Purchase Link – Purchase a physical copy of the Careers Tool Box book for offline access and reference.

Alt Text: Image of the Careers Tool Box book cover, promoting purchase for a physical resource guide.

Affecting Change in Your Physics Department: Student Advocacy

Action Items for Student Influence:

Alumni Mock Interviews: Discuss with faculty and department leaders the possibility of engaging alumni to conduct mock interviews for students, providing valuable real-world interview practice.
Professional Meeting Support: Advocate for departmental support for student participation in professional meetings and conferences, enabling networking and career exploration opportunities.
Undergraduate Research Engagement: Encourage faculty to actively involve undergraduate students in collaborative research projects, enhancing research skills and mentorship opportunities.
Career Development Course: Promote the development of a one- or two-credit course focused on career decision-making, professional skill acquisition, and job search strategies within the physics curriculum.
SPS Career Preparation Initiatives: Address career preparation topics at Society of Physics Students (SPS) meetings, perhaps by inviting alumni to share their career journeys or inviting career services professionals to present on available resources.

Recommended Online Resources for Physics Careers

SPS Jobs: jobs.spsnational.org – Explore job listings and resources specifically for physics bachelor’s degree holders seeking employment.
Physics Today Job Resources: physicstoday.org/jobs/career_resources – Access career resources, including information on physics career options, resume and cover letter templates, and job application advice.
SPS Career Resources: spsnational.org/career-resources – Explore comprehensive physics career information, including physicist profiles, career advice, and links to related resources.
Who’s Hiring Physics Bachelor’s?: aip.org/statistics/trends/states/state.html – Identify employers hiring physics bachelor’s graduates in specific states.
AIP Statistics: Skills Physics Bachelor’s Use: aip.org/statistics/reports/physics-bachelor%E2%80%99s-initial-employment – Review the report “Physics Bachelor’s Initial Employment,” focusing on Figure 4, which details skills used by physics bachelor’s in their first jobs.
APS Careers Website: aps.org/careers – Access a range of career resources from the American Physical Society, including webinars, career workshops, and professional development guides.
GradSchoolShopper: gradschoolshopper.com – Explore graduate programs in physics, astronomy, and related physical sciences if you are considering further education.

About the Careers Tool Box: Project Background

In 2010, the American Institute of Physics (AIP) received a grant from the National Science Foundation to investigate effective methods for physics departments to prepare undergraduate students for the STEM workforce. This project is a collaborative effort between the AIP Education Division (home of the Society of Physics Students) and the AIP Statistical Research Center. The 4th Edition of the Careers Tool Box was published in 2017.

Through site visits to diverse physics departments committed to career preparation, the project identified best practices for equipping physics students for STEM careers. The findings are disseminated through reports, articles, and workshops. This career tool box was developed based on these research findings, with significant contributions from undergraduate physics student interns and other stakeholders.

The American Institute of Physics (AIP) Career Pathways Project is supported by National Science Foundation Award Number: 1011829.

For further information, please contact: [email protected]. Print copies of the career tool box are available for order from the SPS Store.

Primary Career Tool Box 4th Edition Authors:

Brad Conrad – Director – SPS and ΣΠΣ, AIP Education Division
Kerry Kidwell-Slak – Assistant Director – SPS and ΣΠΣ, AIP Education Division
Toni Sauncy, Associate Professor of Physics – Texas Lutheran Univ. & former Director – SPS and ΣΠΣ
Katherine Zaunbrecher – Post Doctoral Researcher – Colorado State University
Patrick Mulvey – Senior Survey Scientist – AIP Statistical Research Center

Career Tool Box Student Authors:

Amanda Palchak – University of Southern Mississippi, SPS Summer Intern 2011
Shouvik Bhattacharya – Minnesota State University, SPS Summer Intern 2012
Jose “Ro” Avila – King College, SPS Summer Intern 2013

AIP Career Pathways Project Investigators:

Roman Czujko, Director – AIP Statistical Research Center
Thomas Olsen, former Assistant Director – Society of Physics Students, AIP Education Division
Kendra Redmond, former Programs Manager – Society of Physics Students, AIP Education Division
Toni Sauncy, former Director – Society of Physics Students and Sigma Pi Sigma, AIP Education Division

Career Tool Box Reviewers:

Bridger Anderson, Program Manager – Innovative Micro Technology
Crystal Bailey, Career Program Manager – American Physical Society
Pat Boeshaar, Senior Lecturer, Physics Department – University of California, Davis
Staci Heidtke, Associate Director, Career Services – University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire

The Careers Tool Box is a product of the AIP Career Pathways Project, conducted by the American Institute of Physics and the Society of Physics Students.

Funded by National Science Foundation award number 1011829.